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Kamis, 29 Oktober 2009

Sakit Lion

A Lion, unable from old age and infirmities to provide himself with food by force, resolved to do so by artifice. A Lion, tidak dari usia tua dan kelemahan untuk menyediakan dirinya dengan makanan dengan paksa, memutuskan untuk melakukannya dengan kecerdasan. He returned to his den, and lying down there, pretended to be sick, taking care that his sickness should be publicly known. Dia kembali ke ruang duduk, dan berbaring di sana, pura-pura sakit, berhati-hati bahwa penyakit harus diketahui publik. The beasts expressed their sorrow, and came one by one to his den, where the Lion devoured them. Binatang menyatakan kesedihan, dan datang satu per satu ke ruang kerjanya, di mana singa melahapnya. After many of the beasts had thus disappeared, the Fox discovered the trick and presenting himself to the Lion, stood on the outside of the cave, at a respectful distance, and asked him how he was. Setelah banyak sehingga binatang-binatang itu menghilang, Fox menemukan trik dan memperkenalkan diri ke Singa, berdiri di luar gua, pada jarak yang hormat, dan bertanya bagaimana ia. "I am very middling," replied the Lion, "but why do you stand without? Pray enter within to talk with me." "Saya sangat lumayan," jawab si singa, "tapi kenapa kau berdiri tanpa? Berdoalah masukkan dalam berbicara dengan saya." "No, thank you," said the Fox. "Tidak, terima kasih," kata Fox. "I notice that there are many prints of feet entering your cave, but I see no trace of any returning." "Saya melihat bahwa ada banyak cetakan kaki memasuki gua Anda, tapi aku melihat tidak ada jejak dari setiap kembali."

He is wise who is warned by the misfortunes of others. Dia adalah bijaksana yang diperingatkan oleh kemalangan orang lain.

Aesop's Cube Aesop's Cube

Sakit Lion

He is wise who is warned by the misfortunes of others. Dia adalah bijaksana yang diperingatkan oleh kemalangan orang lain.

Aesop's Cube Aesop's Cube

Rabu, 14 Oktober 2009

This article is about the holiday. For other uses, see Halloween (disambiguation).

Halloween
Jack-o'-lantern
Also called	All Hallows’ Eve All Saints’ Eve
Observed by	Numerous Western countries (see article)
Type	Secular with roots in Christianity and paganism
Begins	Night time
Ends	Midnight
Date	October 31
Celebrations	Costume parties, trick-or-treating in costumes, and pranks
Related to	Samhain, All Saints’ Day

Halloween (also spelled Hallowe'en) is an annual holiday celebrated on October 31.

It has roots in the Celtic festival of Samhain and the Christian holy day of All Saints’ Day. It is largely a secular celebration, but some have expressed strong feelings about perceived religious overtones.^[1]^[2]^[3] Irish immigrants carried versions of the tradition to North America during Ireland's Great Famine of the 1840s.^[4]

The day is often associated with orange and black, and is strongly associated with symbols like the jack-o'-lantern. Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, wearing costumes and attending costume parties, ghost tours, bonfires, visiting haunted attractions, pranks, reading scary stories, and watching horror films.

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History

Snap-Apple Night by Daniel Maclise showing a Halloween party in Blarney, Ireland, in 1832. The young children on the right bob for apples. A couple in the center play Snap-Apple, which involves retrieving an apple hanging from a string. The couples at left play divination games. These games are common at Irish Halloween parties still today

Halloween has origins in the ancient Celtic festival known as Samhain [pronounced: sow- wen] (Irish pronunciation: [ˈsˠaunʲ]; from the Old Irish samhain, possibly derived from Gaulish samonios).^[5] The festival of Samhain is a celebration of the end of the harvest season in Gaelic culture, and is sometimes^[6] regarded as the "Celtic New Year".^[7] Traditionally, the festival was a time used by the ancient Celtic pagans to take stock of supplies and slaughter livestock for winter stores. The ancient Celts believed that on October 31 the boundary between the world and the otherworld dissolved, and the dead become dangerous for the living by causing problems such as sickness or damage to crops. The festival frequently involved bonfires into which the bones of slaughtered livestock were thrown.^{[citation needed]} The wearing of costumes and masks at Halloween goes back to the Celtic traditions of attempting to copy the evil spirits or to placate them. In Scotland the dead were impersonated by young men with masked, veiled or blackened faces, while dressed in white.^[8]^[9]

Origin of name

The term Halloween, originally spelled Hallowe’en, is shortened from All Hallows' Eve: eve is an abbreviation of even, an older word for evening. Halloween gets -een as a contraction of even to e'en], from the Old English term eallra hālgena ǣfen meaning "All Hallows' Evening", as it is the eve of "All Hallows’ Day",^[10] which is now also known as All Saints' Day. It was a day of religious festivities in various northern European pagan traditions,^[11] until Popes Gregory III and Gregory IV moved the old Christian feast of All Saints' Day from May 13 (which had itself been the date of a pagan holiday, the Feast of the Lemures) to November 1. In the 9th century, the Church measured the day as starting at sunset, in accordance with the Florentine calendar. Although All Saints' Day is now considered to occur one day after Halloween, the two holidays were at that time celebrated on the same day. Halloween is thought of as a time when the living and the dead can be together again.

Rabu, 07 Oktober 2009

Jangan lupa, FOLLOW ME......

Just like blue cross......
Be Cool......
Not Sweet........
ROCKZZZ

Langganan: Postingan (Atom)

K E S E N I A N

Kesenian atau seni boleh dibahagikan kepada 4 bahagian iaitu :

Seni Suara
Seni Gerak
Seni Rupa
Permainan Tradisional

Menurut Kamus Dewan Seni didefinisikan sebagai karya (sajak, lukisan, muzik, dll) yang dicipta dengan bakat (kecekapan), hasil daripada sesuatu ciptaan.

Manakala kesenian bermaksud perihal seni, yang berkaitan dengan seni, keindahan (kehalusan).

Kesenian ini menjadi tunjang kepada kebudayaan masyarakat Melayu sejak turun temurun lagi. Dengan adanya kesenian seperti ini identiti masyarakat Melayu lebih terserlah dan dikenali ramai.

Kementerian Kebudanyaan dan Kesenian telah mengambil pebagai inisiatif bagi memantapkan dan memperkembangkan lagi kebudayaan masyarakat Melayu. Kesenian bangsa Melayu telah diakui dunia sebagai unik dan menarik.

SENI SUARA

Kesenian mengikut definisi Herberth Read adalah suatu usaha untuk mencipta bentuk-bentuk yang menyenangkan dan seni itu dijalankan pula daripada estetika.

Dalam seni suara kesenian Melayu dapat dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu :

Seni Vokal

Seni Vokal lahir daripada pita suara yang boleh memberi kepuasan kepada pendengar. Setiap seni vokal itu berbeza mengikut masyarakat. Dalam masyarakat Melayu terdapat seni vokal tanpa muzik dan seni vokal yang bergabung dengan muzik.

Seni Vokal tanpa muzik yang sering dinyanyikan dalam masyarakat Melayu ialah :

Endoi atau dendang Siti Fatimah dan ulit anak

Endoi atau dendang Siti Fatimah terkenal di negerii Perak, Selangor dan Negeri Sembilan manakala ulit anak dinegeri Terengganu. Biasanya dilagukan dalam upacara berbentuk keislaman seperti menyambut kelahiran anak atau upacara bercukur kepala.

Nazam atau naban

Berasal daripada Terengganu, Pahang dan Melaka. Dikarang dalam Bahasa Melayu yang mengisahkan riwayat Nabi Muhamad, para Nabi Allah dan para sahabat Rasul. Persembahan yang tidak disertai alat muzik ini memerlukan kemerduan suara.

Marhaban, nasyid dan qasidah

Merupakan nyanyian keagamaan. Marhaban ialah pujian kepada Nabi Muhamad dan dinyanyikan dalam Bahasa Arab. Nasyid ialah nyanyian dan berbentuk dakwah Islam iaitu terdapat dalam senikata Arab dan Melayu. Qasidah biasanya dinyanyikan dalam bahasa Arab yang mengandungi puisi memuji Nabi Muhamad dan para sahabat.

Lagu yang digabungkan dengan muzik

Dikir

Dikir dikenali dengan pelbagai nama seperti dikir maulud, dikir Pahang, dikir Rebana dan dikir berarak. Dikir-dikir ini dilagukan dengan iringan pukulan rebana atau kompang.

Hadrah

Sejenis nyanyian yang berasal daripada dikir. Dinyanyikan dengan iringan sejenis alat bercorak rebana yang hampir sama dengan kompang.

Beduan

Sejenis naynyian rakyat negeri Perlis dan diringi dengan bunyi-bunyian gendang. Beduan mempunyai persamaan dengan bentuk zikir dan burdah yang diringi dengan pukulan rebana.

Dikir barat

Sejenis nyayian yang terkenal dinegeri Kelantan. Nyanyiannya diringan dengan pukulan rebana.

Ghazal

Sejenis puisi Arab yang berbentuk percintaan. Ghazal dinyanyiakan dengan iringan alat seperti syeringgi, sitar, harmonium dan tabla.

Seni Muzik

Menurut Kamus Dewan Muzik didefinisikan sebagai gubahan bunyi yang menghasilkan bentuk dan irama yang indah dan menyenangkan, bunyi-bunyian.

Muzik adalah satu daya tarikan kepada manusia. Ahli-ahli falsafah berpendapat bahawa setiap manusia mempunyai minat terhadap muzik. Keadaan ini jelas dilihat kepada reaksi manusia terhadap bunyi-bunyian yang sudah menjadi kegemaran sejak manusia dilahirkan. Muzik sebenarnya tidak dapat dilihat dan dinikmati dengan pancaindera penglihatan, tetapi dirasai dengan hati atau perasaan.

Muzik Tradisi Warisan Istana

Dalam masyarakat terdapat dua kelompok masyarakat iaitu :

Tradisi tinggi (great tradition)
Tradisi rendah (little tardition)

Kumpulan masyarakat tradisi tinggi terdiri daripada golongan bangsawan yang merupakan golongan kelas pemerintah yang menjadikan istana sebagai pusat kebudayaan.

Raja-raja menubuhkan kumpulan-kumpulan muzik diistana dan latihan dianjurkan untuk meningkatkan mutu persembahannya. Muzik nobat menjadi satu pasukan muzik istana sejak abab ke 15 lagi. Muzik ini dimainkan dalam upacara pertabalan, kematian raja dan upacara mengadap oleh para pembesar di hadapan balairung. Selain nobat muzik yang berkembang melalui tradisi istana di Malaysia ialah gamelan. Gamelan yang terkenal diTanah Melayu berasal dari kerajaa Riau-Lingga dan Johor. Alat-alat muzik yang digunakan dalam gamelan termasuklah saron, bonang, kerompong, gendang dan gong.

Tradisi Muzik Rakyat

Disamping tradisi tinggi yang berpusat diistana, terdapat pula tradisi rendah dikalangan rakyat biasa yang terdir daripada kaum petani dan nelayan. Perkembangan seni muzik diperingkat masyarakat tradisi rendah lahir daripada minat anggota masyarakat itu sendiri. Sebahagian daripada mereka mewarisi keahlian bermain alat-alat muzik itu daripada keluarganya. Alat-alat muzik ini diperbuat daripada bahan-bahan yang diperolehi disekeliling mereka seperti buluh, kayu, kulit binatang dan lain-lain. Muzik rebana merupakan sejenis alat muzik yang berkembang dalam masyarakat Melayu tradisional. Rebana dimainkan dalam persembahan yang berunsur keislaman seperti dikir, ratib, nazam, hadrah, rodat, maulut dan lain-lain.

Tradisi Muzik Melayu yang lain

Tradisi muzik melayu yang lain seperti muzik makyong dan gendang keling diwarisi dari zaman praislam.Gendang keling dan Mek Mulung di Kedah dan Perlis menggunakan alat muzik seperti Gong, rebab, gendang dan serunai. Di samping berbagai – bagai jenis muzik yang dinyatakan ,muzik wayang kulit, kuda kepang dan ghazal juga merupakan muzik melayu tradisional dari zaman silam. Muzik wayang kulit mengandungi alat muzik seperti gamelan dan mempunyai hubungan dengan tradisi dan kepercayaan masyarakat pribumi. Ghazal pula berasal dari pengaruh Arab Parsi , yang dibawa melalui India sebelum berkembang di alam melayu. Muzik melayu asli ialah muzik yang menyertai tarian ronggeng atau joget yang mempunyai hubungan dengan dongdang sayang yang berkembang di Melaka dan canggung di Perlis. Dalam Tarian kuda kepang pula terdapat alat – alat muzik paluan yang dibunyikan mengikut rentak kuda berlari. Tarian kuda kepang ini berkembang di Johor di kalangan masyarakat melayu keturunan Jawa.

SENI GERAK

Seni gerak mengandungi segala gerakan tubuh badan yang mempunyai unsur – unsur keindahan . Seni ini dapat dilihat pada gerakan tangan , kaki , badan , mata dan anggota badan yang lain. seni gerak orang melayu dapat dibahagikan kepada dua jenis iaitu seni tari dan seni drama.

SENI TARI

Seorang ahli sejarah tarian dan muzik Jerman bernama C. Sachs telah memberikan definisi seni tari sebagai gerakan yang berirama. Seni tari adalah pengucapan jiwa manusia melalui gerak – geri berirama yang indah. Dalam kebudayaan melayu terdapat berbagai – bagai jenis tarian , sama ada tarian asli ataupun tarian yang telah dipengaruhi oleh unsur – unsur moden. Menurut Jaafar Mampak, tarian melayu asli terbahagi kepada dua jenis. Pertama , tarian yang bercorak lemah lembut seperti tarian mak inang dan siti payung. Kedua , tarian rancak yang merupakan hasil daripada pengaruh tarian Portugis seperti tarian Ronggeng , Serampang Laut dan Singapura Dua.

Seni tari boleh dikategorikan dalam berbagai – bagai jenis. Antara pembahagian yang boleh dibuat terhadap seni tari melayu adalah seperti berikut :

Tarian – tarian yang bercorak seni tari istana yang dipersembahkan pada waktu perkahwinan , pertabalan , istiadat menyembah dan sebagainya. Tarian – tarian ini termasuklah tarian siti payung , mak inang , asyik , gamelan dan sebagainya.
Tarian – tarian yang memperlihatkan wujudnya pengaruh Arab dan Parsi seperti tarian rodat , hadrah dan sebagainya.
Tarian rakyat seperti dondang sayang , ronggeng , joget dan sebagainya.
Tarian yang khusus ditarikan oleh kaum lelaki sahaja seperti tarian kuda kepang , tarian labi – labi , tarian berdayung dan sebagainya.

TARIAN ASLI

Tarian ini dicipta berdasarkan lagu – lagu melayu asli dengan mengikuti irama lagu – lagu melayu asli yang tertentu. Seni tari jenis ini ialah tarian yang dicipta daripada lagu Makan Sirih , Gunung Banang , Sapu Tangan , Asli Selendang , Bentan , Telani , Asli Abadi dan sebagainya.

TARIAN ASYIK

Tarian ini adalah sejenis tarian klasik dari daerah – daerah di Kelantan yang ditarikan di istana raja – raja Kelantan dan Patani. Asyik bererti kekasih , oleh itu tarian ini bersesuaian dengan gerak – geri bersifat lemah lembut dan penuh dengan ketertiban. Tarian ini dimulai dengan sepuluh orang penari masuk ke dewan tarian terlebih dahulu , lalu duduk bersimpuh dengan tertibnya. Kemudian tampillah Puteri Asyik dan mereka pun mula menari.Tarian asyik ini ditarikan dalam upacara perkahwinan dan pada malam berinai. Tiga alat muzik penting yang digunakan ialah rebab , gambang dan gedombak.

TARIAN AYAM DIDIK

Tarian ini dikatakan berasal daripada gerakan berlaga ayam, iaitu sejenis sukan yang diminati oleh orang Melayu pada masa lampau. Tarian ini dicipta oleh ahli tarian dinegeri Perlis. Tarian ini diringi dengan nyanyian lagu ayam didik.

TARIAN BALAI

Tarian ini berasal dari daerah-daerah dinegeri Terengganu. Tarian ini ditarikan oleh gadis-gadis kampung dalam bentuk simbolik seperti melakukan pekerjaan sawah. Penari-penari akan menari mengelilingi balai, iaitu sejenis payung panjang berwarna-warni yang diletakan dibawah gelanggang.

CANGGUNG

Kata tanggung berasal dari bahasa Thai yang bererti menari. Tarian Canggung berasal dari negeri Perlis dan menjadi popular di negeri Kedah, Perlis dan Pulau Pinang. Tarian ini dicipta oleh seorang ahli tarian dari Kangar selepas perang dunia kedua

TARIAN SITI WAU BULAN

Tarian ini berasal dari negeri Kelantan, ditarikan pada musim menuai sempena dengan temasya dan permainan wau.

TARIAN CINTA SAYANG

Tarian ini berasal dari yang menggambarkan keluarga nelayan. Tarian ini menunjukan bagaimana keluarga nelayan mengucapkan selamat jalan kepada para nelayan sebelum turun ke laut.

TARIAN DABUS

Tarian ini berasal dari negeri Perak dan mengandungi unsur keagamaan yang berkait dengan kepahlwanan Sayidina Ali.

TARIAN GAMBUS

Tarian ini berasal dari daerah Kuala Kangsar Perak. Tarian ini dikatakan telah dikenali didaerah ini sejak 50 tahun yang lalu, dipercayai berasal dari negeri Arab.

TARIAN INAI

Tarian ini adalah tarian istana yang ditarikan semasa majlis berkhatan anak pembesar-pembesar istana. Ianya dipersembahkan kepada kanak-kanak ini semasa mereka hendak dikhatankan dan duduk diatas pelamin.

TARIAN JOGET

Tarian ini diperngaruhi oleh kebudayaan Portugis dan dijadikan sebagai tarian sosial serta diterima oleg berbagai-bagai kaum di Malaysia.

TARIAN KUDA KEPANG

Tarian ini ialah tarian warisan budaya Jawa yang terpengaruh dengan islam. Ciri kejawaan itu jelas pada pakaian penari-penari dan unsur islam jelas semasa cerita itu ditarikan iaitu mengisahkan pepernagan Rasullollha dan para sahabat.

TARIAN MAK INANG

Pada zaman kesultanan Melayui Melaka, tarian mak inang sangat popular ditarikan pada hari-hari kerja kahwin tetapi kini ditarikan majlis-majlis sosial.

TARIAN ZAPIN

Tarian ini dikatakan berasal dari negeri Parsi . Ianya diringi dengan alat-alat muzik seperti dabus dan marwas. Pakaian yang digunakan ialah baju melayu.

DRAMA TRADISOANAL

Drama tradisional mengikut pendapat Amin Sweeney ialah karya drama yang dianggap oleh masyarakat yang mewarisinya sebagi hasil yang diwarisi secara turun temurun dari generasi yang lampau. Antara seni drama tradisinal yang popular dalam masyarakat melayu adalah seperti berikut :

MAIN PUTERI

Drama tradisinal ini berkembang dengan popular sekali didesa-desa dinegeri Kelantan. Drama ini digunakan untuk mengubati orang sakit. Tok Puteri memainkan peranan sebagai pawang atau bomoh untuk mengawal penyakit yang dibawa oleh roh-roh atau semangat jahat.

MAKYUNG

Makyung ialah drama tradisional yang popular dinegeri Kelantan. Drama ini berasal daripada ritual memuja roh datuk nenek. Permianan makyung ini dikatakan berasal dari negeri Patani.

MENORA

Menora ialah sejenis drama tradisioanal Melayu yang dikatakan dipengaruhi oleh seni darama Siam. Menora telah menjadi popular dinegeri Perlis, Kedah dan Kelantan.

WAYANG KULIT

Wayang kulit merupakan sejenis drama tradisoanl melayu yang terbahagi kepada beberapa jenis seperti wayang golek, wayang wang, wayang topeng dan wayang beber. Kini hanya wayang kulit yang masih kekal.

SENI RUPA Seni rupa dalam masyarakat melayu meruapakan ciptaan yang megandungi unsur-unsur seni yang dihasilkan oleh orang melayu melalui ukiran, anyaman, tenunan, seni bina dan sebagainya.

SENI UKIR

Seni Ukir dalam masyarakat melayu mempunyai hubungan rapat dengan hasil-hasil kerja tangan yang dicipta melalui kepandaian mengukir. Ciri-ciri ukiran itu dihasilkan melalui ukiran timbul, ukiran terbenam, ukiran tebuk dan ukiran timbus.

SENI KRAFTANGAN

Seni kraftangan adalah hasil seni yang dicipta untuk digunakan, tetapi digubah dengan memasukkan unsur-unsur seni untuk memberi bentuk yang indah dan menarik hati. Penciptaan kraftangan itu memerlukan keahlian dan kecekapan dalam penggunaan bahan-bahan asas yang teratur sejak dari proses awal hinggalah sesuatu hasil kraftangan itu tercipta. Proses penciptaan kraftangan tersebut memerlukan daya estetika demi untuk memberikan rekabentuk yang indah dan menarik.

SENI TEMBIKAR

Seni tembikar merupakan sejenis hasil kraftangan orang melayu yang menggunakan tanah liat yang dibakar dan digilap. Reka bentuknya dicipta berdasarkan fungsi sesuatu barang itu seperti periuk nasi, bekas air, bekas mennyimpan makanan seperti jeruk, pekasam dan lain-lain. Perusahaan membuat tembiran secara tradisoanl ini masih dilakukanoleh orang melayu khususnya di Sayung, Perak.

SENI ANYAMAN

Menganyam meruapakn proses menjalin jaluran daun, lidi, rotan, akar, buluh dan beberapa jenis tumbuhan yang lain. Beberapa jenis reka bentuk kraftangan dihasilkan melalui nyaman demi untuk mencipta sesuatu alat keperluan harian contohnya mengahsilkan topi, tudung saji, bakul dan mengayam tikar untuk mengalas tempat duduk.

TEKATAN

Tekatan dikenali juga dengan nama suji dan merupakan sejenis seni kraftangan yang popular dalam masyarakat melayu. Tekatan menggunakan kain baldu sebagai kain dasar dan bentuk hiasannya mengambarkan rekabentuk bunga dan pohon – pohon. Tekatan digunakan untuk membuat kasut , kipas . muka bantal dan balutan tepak sirih. Hasil tekatan ini dibuat bagi tujuan upacara tertentu seperti dijadikan hiasan pada upacara perkahwinan , upacara berkhatan , pertabalan raja dan upacara – upacara kebesaran yang lain.

SENI TENUNAN

Seni tenunan terbahagi kepada tiga jenis iaitu tenunan biasa , tenunan ikat celup dan songket. Tenunan songket merupakan tenunan yang paling lengkap dan cantik. Tenunan ini merupakan satu perkembangan daripada proses tenunan biasa. Sementara tenunan ikat pula dipercayai berkembang di istana raja – raja. Penciptaannya lebih rumit terutama dalam proses menyongket solek atau menyolek. Jenis kain tenunan ini dikenali juga dengan panggilan kain benang emas.

SENI BATIK

Batik merupakan seni tekstil yang dihasilkan melalui proses menerapkan lilin dan mencelup kain. Pada permulaannya kain putih yang hendak diproses menjadi kain batik itu direbus dan dikeringkan. Kemudian kain batik itu diterapkan dengan blok tembaga yang dicelupkan ke dalam lilin cair yang dipanaskan. Selepas diterapkan kain itu akan diwarnakan dengan cara celupan yang berperingkat – peringkat. Selanjutnya kain itu direbus dan divasuh sehingga bersih lalu dijemur hingga kering.

SENI TEMBAGA

Seni tembaga merupakan satu lagi kraftangan orang melayu. Seni ini diperkenalkan denagn tujuan untuk mencipta alat-alat daripada tembaga yang canti dan indah bentuknya. Alat-alat yang dicipta dalam proses seni tembaga ini digunakan dalam upacara-upacara adat khususnya diistana raja-raja melayu seperti alat-alat pertabalan raja, upacara perlkahwinan atau upacara diraja yang lain. Alat-alat tembaga ini digunakan sebagi hiasan atau perkakasan kegunaan dirumah seperti dulang, tempat letak sireh, sudu, tempat bara, bekas perenjis air mawar dan sebagainya

SENI BINA

Reka bentuk seni bina melayu lahir daripada bentuk rumah-rumah yang menjadi tempat penginapan orang melayu. Walaupun terdapat berbagai jenis rumah melayu namun struktur binaanya tdiak banyak berbeza . Reka bentuk rumah-rumah melayu juga meperlihatkan wujudnya unsur-unsur seni bina dari daerah-daerah lain dialam melayu atau dari luar alam melayu. Contohnya rumah-rumah orang melayu di negeri Sembilan adalah bercorak seni bina rumah minangkabau

PERMAINAN RAKYAT

Dalam tradisi lisan, permainan ini yang dikenali juga sebagai pemainan masa lapang atau sukan rakyat termasuk dalam kategori "folk games". Permainan ini bukan sahaja berfungsi sebagai alat hiburan tetapi juga berperanan dalam aktiviti sosial untuk menyerikan majlis-majlis keramaian, perkahwinan dan sebagainya.

Permainan masa lapang dan sukan rakyat yang lahir di dalam kebudayaan Melayu, malah dalam kebudayaan semua dikatakan sebagai satu cara untuk pelepasan emosi manusia itu sendiri.

Di samping berfungsi diatas permainan tradisional dalam masyarakat Melayu memainkan beberapa peranan yang lain seperti bertindak sebagai alat komunikasi di kalangan anggota masyarakat.

Permainan masa lapang bagi orang Melayu boleh dibahagikan kepada permainan untuk orang dewasa dan permainan untuk kanak-kanak.

Permainan untuk orang dewasa termasuklah permainan wau, sepak raga, gasing, menyabung ayam, laga buah keras, congkak, berlaga kerbau dan lain-lain.

Permainan untuk kanak-kanak pula termasuklah main telaga buruk, guli-guli, main galah, main kapal terbang, cina buta, ketup atau sembunyi dan lain-lain.

PERMAINAN GASING

Gasing ialah permainan rakyat yang popular dikalangan orang Melayu. Di negeri-negeri Pantai Barat gasing diperbuat daripada kayu, sementara di negeri-negeri Pantai Timur khususnya dinegeri Kelantan gasing diperbuat daripada timah.

Permainan gasing dapat dibahagikan kepada tiga jenis iaitu :

Permainan untuk bersuka ria
Pertandingan gasing
Permainan untuk pertunjukkan.

PERMAINAN LAYANG-LAYANG ATAU WAU

Permainan layang-layang atau wau mempunyai hubungan dengan kepercayaan kepada semangat padi. Permainan wau dipercayai telah dilakukan sebagai satu cara untuk memohon maaf kepada semangat padi yang telag menjelma menjadi seorang anak gadis.

Permainan wau diadakan sebagai hiburan untuk pelabagi peringkat umur. Permainan wau juga diadakan untuk pertandingan. Pertandingan yang melihat bentuk kecantikannya diukur dari segi keindahannya kepada bentuk, corak ciptaan, warna, keaslian ciptaan dan ukranya.

PERMAINAN CONGKAK

Permainan congkak ialah sejenis permianan Melayu tradisional yang digemari oleh kaum wanita dan kanak-kanak. Permainan ini dipercayai mula berkembang di istana iaitu dikalangan wanita-wanita istana dan para pembesar. Mereka memainkan permainan ini untuk menghiburkan hati pada waktu lapang dan juga bagi mengisi masa yang banyak terluang.

Permainan congkak menggunakan dua bahan, iaitu papan congkak dan buah congkak. Kadang-kadang sebagai ganti papan congkak, lubang-lubangnya dibuat diatas tanah. Sementara biji-biji congkak pula ialah guli-guli kaca, buah getah, biji saga, batu-batu kecil dan sebagainya. Setiap papan congka hanya boleh dimainkan oleh dua orang sahaja.

MENYABUNG AYAM

Salah satu permianan bercorak pertandingan yang digemari oleh masyarakat Melayu tradisional ialah permainan menyabung binatang-binatang ternakan seperti lembu, kerbau dan ayam. Permaina sabung ayam misalnya diadakan sempenan sesuatu upacara tertentu yang disambut oelh masyarakat Melayu tradisional seperti ketika menyambut kelihiran bayi, perkahwinan dan pentabakan raja.

Permainan manyabung ayam melibatkan pertaruhan wang atau sejenis perjudian. Tetapi pemilik ayam boleh mendapat bayaran tanpa turut serta dalam pertaruhan menyabung dengan cara menyewakan ayamnay jika ayamnya itu telah terkenal sering beroleh kemenangan.

SEPAK RAGA

Sepaka raga ialah sejenis permianan yang menggunakan bola yang diperbuat daripada rotan yang dinanyam dua hingga tiga lapis. Sepak raga dimainkan oleh beberpapa orang pemain yang berdiri membentuk bulatan. Permainan ini dimulaid engan salah sorang pemian melambugkan bola kepada salah seorang pemian yang lain. Pemain lain kan menimbang bola terbut sebelum diambil oleh orang lain.

For other uses, see Christmas (disambiguation) and Christmas Day (disambiguation).

Christmas

Also called	Christ's Mass Nativity Yule Tide Noel Winter Pascha
Observed by	Christians Many non-Christians^[1]
Type	Christian, cultural
Significance	Nativity of Jesus
Date	December 25
Observances	church services, gift giving, family meetings, decorating trees
Related to	Annunciation, Advent, Epiphany, Baptism of the Lord, Winter solstice

Christmas (pronounced /ˈkrɪsməs/) or Christmas Day is an annual holiday celebrated on December 25 that commemorates the birth of Jesus of Nazareth.^[2]^[3] The day marks the beginning of the larger season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days.^[4] It is unlikely that December 25 is Jesus' actual birthday, as this date of celebration may have been chosen solely to correspond with either a historical Roman festival^[5] or the winter solstice.^[6]

Modern customs of the holiday include gift-giving, Church celebrations, exchange of Christmas cards, and the display of various decorations—including the Christmas tree, lights, mistletoe, nativity scenes, and holly. Santa Claus (also referred to as Father Christmas, although the two figures have different origins) is a popular mythological figure often associated with bringing gifts at Christmas for children. Santa is generally believed to be the result of a syncretization between Saint Nicholas and elements from pagan Nordic and Christian mythology, and his modern appearance is believed to have originated in 19th century media.

Christmas is celebrated throughout the Christian population, but is also celebrated by many non-Christians as a secular, cultural festival. Because gift-giving and several other aspects of the holiday involve heightened economic activity among both Christians and non-Christians, Christmas has become a major event for many retailers.

Etymology

The Birth of Jesus

The word Christmas originated as a compound meaning "Christ's Mass". It is derived from the Middle English Christemasse and Old English Cristes mæsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038.^[3] "Cristes" is from Greek Christos and "mæsse" is from Latin missa. In Greek, the letter Χ (chi), is the first letter of Christ, and it, or the similar Roman letter X, has been used as an abbreviation for Christ since the mid-16th century.^[7] Hence, Xmas is often used as an abbreviation for Christmas.

History

For many centuries, Christian writers accepted that Christmas was the actual date on which Jesus was born.^[8] However, in the early eighteenth century, scholars began proposing alternative explanations. Isaac Newton argued that the date of Christmas was selected to correspond with the winter solstice,^[6] which in ancient times was marked on December 25.^[9] In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a "paganization" that debased the true church.^[5] In 1889, Louis Duchesne suggested that the date of Christmas was calculated as nine months after the Annunciation (March 25), the traditional date of the Incarnation.^[10]

Dies Natalis Solis Invicti

Main article: Sol Invictus

Dies Natalis Solis Invicti means "the birthday of the unconquered Sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped collectively, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the god of Emperor Aurelian; and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin.^[11] Emperor Elagabalus (218–222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday.^[12] This day had held no significance in the Roman festive calendar until it was introduced in the third century.^[13]

The festival was placed on the date of the solstice because this was on this day that the Sun reversed its southward retreat and proved itself to be "unconquered." Several early Christian writers connected the rebirth of the sun to the birth of Jesus.^[3] "O, how wonderfully acted Providence that on that day on which that Sun was born...Christ should be born", Cyprian wrote.^[3] John Chrysostom also commented on the connection: "They call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord . . .?"^[3]

Winter festivals

Main article: List of winter festivals

Mosaic of Jesus as Christo Sole (Christ the Sun) in Mausoleum M in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under St Peter's Basilica in Rome.^[14] Christians consider Jesus to be the "sun of righteousness" prophesied in Malachi 4:2.

A winter festival was the most popular festival of the year in many cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needs to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached.^[15] Modern Christmas customs include: gift-giving and merrymaking from Roman Saturnalia; greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year; and Yule logs and various foods from Germanic feasts.^[16] Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period. As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan traditions had a major influence on Christmas. Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,^[17] a usage first recorded in 900.

Patristic developments

Adoration of the Magi by Don Lorenzo Monaco (1422)

The New Testament does not give a date for the birth of Jesus.^[3]^[18] Around AD 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that a group in Egypt celebrated the nativity on Pachon 25.^[3] This corresponds to May 20.^[19] Tertullian (d. 220) does not mention Christmas as a major feast day in the Church of Roman Africa.^[3] In Chronographai, a reference work published in 221, Sextus Julius Africanus suggested that Jesus was conceived on the spring equinox.^[20] The equinox was March 25 on the Roman calendar, so this implied a birth in December.^[21] De Pascha Computus, a calendar of feasts produced in 243, gives March 28 as the date of the nativity.^[22] In 245, the theologian Origen of Alexandria stated that, "only sinners (like Pharaoh and Herod)" celebrated their birthdays.^[23] In 303, Christian writer Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods, which suggests that Christmas was not yet a feast at this time.^[3]

Feast established

The earliest reference to the date of the nativity as December 25 is found in the Chronography of 354, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354.^[24] In the East, early Christians celebrated the birth of Christ as part of Epiphany (January 6), although this festival emphasized celebration of the baptism of Jesus.^[25]

Christmas was promoted in the Christian East as part of the revival of Catholicism following the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced to Constantinople in 379, and to Antioch in about 380. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop in 381, although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom in about 400.^[3]

Middle Ages

In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in the west focused on the visit of the magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.^[26] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.^[26] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.^[26]

The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas (1686), Excerpt from Josiah King published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.

The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.

By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.^[26] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.^[26] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.^[26]

Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporating ivy, holly, and other evergreens.^[27] Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.^[27] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.^[28]

Reformation into the 19th century

Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present, by John Leech. Made for Charles Dickens's novel A Christmas Carol (1843).

During the Reformation, some Puritans condemned Christmas celebration as "trappings of popery" and the "rags of the Beast."^[29] The Roman Catholic Church responded by promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old style Christmas generosity.^[28] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas, in 1647.^[29] Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.^[29] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with “plow-boys” and “maidservants”, and carol singing.^[30] The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In Presbyterian Scotland, James VI commanded the celebration of Christmas in 1618, however attendance at church was scant.^[31]

In Colonial America, the Puritans of New England disapproved of Christmas. Celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban by the Pilgrims was revoked in 1681 by English governor Sir Edmund Andros, however it wasn't until the mid 1800's that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.^[32] At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.^[33] George Washington attacked Hessian mercenaries on Christmas during the Battle of Trenton in 1777. (Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.) By the 1820s, sectarian tension had eased and British writers, including William Winstanly, began to worry that Christmas was dying out. These writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration, and efforts were made to revive the holiday.

Charles Dickens' novel A Christmas Carol, published in 1843, helped redefine the 'spirit' of Christmas and seasonal merriment.^[34]^[35] Its instant popularity played a major role in reinventing Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.^[36] Prominent phrases in Dickens' Yultide tale, 'Bah! Humbug!', and 'Merry Christmas', entered the English language. Also in 1843, the Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole, in an era Christmas as we know it today was created. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William B. Sandys Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of 'The First Noel', 'I Saw Three Ships', 'Hark the Herald Angels Sing' and 'God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen' which was popularized in Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Other English carols such as 'We Wish You A Merry Christmas' and 'Oh Come All Ye Faithful' also grew in popularity. Singing carols in church was later instituted on Christmas Eve 1880 (Nine Lessons and Carols) in Truro Cathedral, Cornwall, England, and is now seen in churches all over the world.

The Queen's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle 1848. Republished in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia, December 1850. Victoria's crown, and Prince Albert moustache edited.

In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the time of the personal union with Hanover, by George III's Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in early 1800's, but the custom hadn't yet spread much beyond the royal family. After Victoria's marriage to her German cousin, Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.^[37] A powerful image of the British Royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, initially published in the Illustrated London News December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850, in Godey's Lady's Book (illustration, right). Godey's copied it exactly, except removed the Queens crown, and Prince Alberts moustache, to remake the engraving into an American scene.^[38] The republished Godey's image in 1850, the first widely circulated picture of a decorated evergreen Christmas tree in America, the Art historian Karal Ann Marling called Prince Albert and Queen Victoria shorn of their royal trappings; "the first influential American Christmas tree".^[39] The book containing the image of the family surrounding a decorated tree, folk-culture historian Alfred Lewis Shoemaker states; "In all of America there was no more important medium in spreading the Christmas tree in the decade 1850-60 than Godey's Lady's Book". The image was reprinted in 1860, and by the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.^[38] In America, interest in Christmas was revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon and "Old Christmas", for which he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of old English Christmas traditions, he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.^[28] In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas).^[40] Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted holiday traditions he claimed to have observed in England. Although some argue that Irving invented the traditions he describes, they were widely imitated by his American readers. The poem A Visit from Saint Nicholas popularized the tradition of exchanging gifts and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.^[41] In reaction, this also started the cultural conflict of the holiday's spiritualism and its commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book "The First Christmas in New England", Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.^[42] Christmas was declared a United States Federal holiday in 1870, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.

Nativity of Jesus

Main articles: Annunciation, Nativity of Jesus, and Child Jesus

A Nativity scene

The Nativity of Jesus refers to the Christian belief that the Messiah was born to the Virgin Mary. The story of Christmas is based on the biblical accounts given in the Gospel of Matthew, namely Matthew 1:18-Matthew 2:12 and the Gospel of Luke, specifically Luke 1:26-Luke 2:40. According to these accounts, Jesus was born to Mary, assisted by her husband Joseph, in the city of Bethlehem. According to popular tradition, the birth took place in a stable, surrounded by farm animals, though neither the stable nor the animals are mentioned in the Biblical accounts. However, a manger is mentioned in Luke 2:7 where it states "She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn." Early iconographic representations of the nativity placed the stable and manger within a cave (located, according to tradition, under the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem). Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an angel, and were the first to see the child.^[43] Many Christians believe that the birth of Jesus fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament.^[44]

Remembering is a central way that Christians celebrate Christmas. There is a very long tradition of the Nativity of Jesus in art. The Eastern Orthodox Church practices the Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of the Western Church celebrates Advent. In some Christian denominations, children perform plays re-telling the events of the Nativity, or sing carols that reference the event. Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a Nativity scene or crib, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Live Nativity scenes and tableaux vivants are also performed, using actors and live animals to portray the event with more realism.^[45]

Nativity scenes traditionally include the Three Wise Men, Balthazar, Melchior, and Caspar, and who are said to have followed a star, known as the Star of Bethlehem, and arrive at his birth. ^[46] However, this conflicts with Biblical accounts in that their names and number are never mentioned nor is their arrival at his birth. (Matt. 2:7–8, 16). Likewise, the Bible makes no mention of farm animals, though their presence might be inferred because Mary laid her baby in a manger.

In the U.S., Christmas decorations at public buildings once commonly included Nativity scenes. This practice has led to many lawsuits, as groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union believe it amounts to the government endorsing a religion, which is prohibited by the United States Constitution. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch vs. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island did not violate the First Amendment.^[47]

Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts

Main article: Santa Claus

Santa Claus is known for giving good little children gift

Christmas Presents under a Christmas Tree

Originating from Western culture, where the holiday is characterized by the exchange of gifts among friends and family members, some of the gifts are attributed to a character called Father Christmas (also known as Santa Claus, Saint Nicholas or St. Nikolaus, Sinterklaas, Kris Kringle, Père Noël, Joulupukki, Babbo Natale, Weihnachtsmann, Saint Basil and Father Frost).

The popular image of Santa Claus was created by the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902), who drew a new image annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the form we now recognize. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s.^[48]

Father Christmas, a jolly well nourished bearded man who typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, predates the Santa Claus character, was first recorded in early 17th century England, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and drunkenness.^[49] In Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French Père Noël evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while La Befana is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the Epiphany. It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht, or Black Peter. In other versions, elves make the toys. His wife is referred to as Mrs. Claus.

It is often claimed that the basis for the North American figure of Santa Claus is the Dutch holyman and bringer of gifts Sinterklaas. During the American Revolutionary War, the inhabitants of New York City, a former Dutch colonial town (New Amsterdam) which had been swapped by the Dutch for other territories, reinvented their Sinterklaas tradition, as Saint Nicholas was a symbol of the city's non-English past.^[50] The name Santa Claus supposedly is derived from older Dutch Sinte Klaas. In 1809, the New-York Historical Society convened and retroactively named Sancte Claus the patron saint of Nieuw Amsterdam, the Dutch name for New York City.^[51] However, the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost half a century after the end of the American War of Independence.^[52] Moreover, a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas.^[53] However, not all scholars agree with Jones's findings, which he reiterated in a booklength study in 1978;^[54] Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive and well from the early settlement of the Hudson Valley on.^[55]

The current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes. This story is meant to be a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and modern day globalization, most notably the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.

In Alto Adige/Südtirol (Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsman (who is the German version of Santa Claus). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.^[56]

Decorations

Christmas portal

In many countries there are many different types of decorations used depending on the traditions and available resources.

Christmas Nutcrackers

The Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City is one of the most famous Christmas Trees in the world.

A Christmas tree ornament.

The Christmas tree is often explained as a Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship.^[57] The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835^[49] and represents an importation from the German language. The modern Christmas tree tradition is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century^[57] though many argue that Martin Luther began the tradition in the 16th century.^[58]^[59] From Germany the custom was introduced to Britiain, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of Queen Victoria, and by 1841 the Christmas tree had become even more widespread throughout Britain.^[60] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.^[38] Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.

Since the 19th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage.

A house decorated for Christmas

In Australia, North and South America, the British Isles, and to a lesser extent continental Europe, it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well. Christmas banners may be hung from street lights and Christmas trees placed in the town square.^[61]

In the Western world, rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels.

In many countries a representation of the Nativity Scene is very popular, and people are encouraged to compete and create most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom.

Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night, the evening of January 5.

The traditional colours of Christmas are pine green (evergreen), snow white, and heart red.

Christmas cards

Main article: Christmas card

A 1940 Christmas card

Christmas cards are usually exchanged during the weeks preceding Christmas Day on December 25 by many people (including non-Christians) in Western society and in Asia. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London 1843. There are innumerable variations on this greeting, many cards expressing more religious sentiment, or containing a poem, prayer or Biblical verse; others stay away from religion with an all-inclusive "Season's greetings".

A Christmas card is generally commercially designed and purchased for the occasion. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or have Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem or a white dove representing both the Holy Spirit and Peace. Many Christmas cards are secular and show Christmas traditions such as Santa Claus, objects associated with Christmas such as candles, holly and baubles, and Christmastime activities such as shopping and partying, or other aspects of the season such as the snow and wildlife of the northern winter. Some secular cards depict nostalgic scenes of the past such as crinolined shoppers in 19th century streetscapes; others are humorous, particularly in depicting the antics of Santa and his retinue.

Christmas stamps

Main article: Christmas stamp

Christmas stamp 2000 from Faroe Island, featuring quote from John 1:14, designed by Anker Eli Petersen

A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastime. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in considerable quantities.

In 1898 a Canadian stamp was issued to mark the inauguration of the Imperial Penny Postage rate. The stamp features a map of the globe and bears an inscription "XMAS 1898" at the bottom. In 1937, Austria issued two "Christmas greeting stamps" featuring a rose and the signs of the zodiac. In 1939, Brazil issued four semi-postal stamps with designs featuring the three kings and a star of Bethlehem, an angel and child, the Southern Cross and a child, and a mother and child.

The US Postal Service regularly issues both a religious-themed and a secular-themed stamp each year.

Economics of Christmas

A Christmas market in Clifton Mill, Ohio

Christmas is typically the largest annual economic stimulus for many nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new products as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season" generally begins on Black Friday, the day after Thanksgiving, though many American stores begin selling Christmas items as early as October.^[62] In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before Halloween (October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11.

In most areas, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year). In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Scotland is currently planning similar legislation. Film studios release many high-budget movies in the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values.

An economists analysis calculates that Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, due to the surge in gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001 Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone.^[63]^[64] Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.^[65]